76 No. 37261 GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, 24 JANUARY 2014 technology is the assumed approach, the costs of extending fibre networks to all population centres, especially the most distant and dispersed areas, can be extremely high. Moreover, beyond backbone connection, there are additional costs for local access connections, equipment, and service operations associated with local public broadband services. Where such service is provided via public telecentres or Multi-Purpose Community Centres (MPCCs), there are ongoing management and facility costs; where school or government connections are provided, management costs are required. similar internal operating equipment and It is also important to note that programmes that emphasise affordability of computers, smart phones, and other end-user equipment can help to bring down costs while allowing more users to experience the benefits of broadband. Initiatives to expand the scope of available ICT applications and content that are of interest to local populations, including private, locally developed apps, and e-government, e-health, and e-education services, can also have a significant effect. And general training and capacity building components of any universal access programme are an essential element to generate effective utilisation and benefits. Also, the introduction of public access broadband services in smaller towns and villages can allow for a wider dissemination of such access beyond fixed facilities. By attaching the broadband point-of-presence to a local wireless transmission network, whether Wi-Fi or a short-range microcell service, users with smart phones, laptops, dongles, or other personal equipment can obtain broadband connectivity in nearby homes and businesses, and even on a mobile basis within their communities. This type of approach can multiply the benefits of public broadband deployments many times, moving towards universal broadband access. 9.5 Emerging challenges and New Possible UAS approaches Universal access and service has been evolving over time. Whilst the focus of UAS programmes in the past was telephony, attention is now shifting towards the Internet and broadband. There are differences of approach between developed and developing countries in terms of universal access and service policies and programmes. For instance, in the European Union a service should only qualify for US or UA investments when it has achieved majority penetration through commercial or market forces. In developing countries such an approach may not yield desirable outcomes since it may take years for market forces to be able to deliver services to a wider section of the population. Universal service and access programmes should also pay attention to other gaps in the system, such as the availability of electricity, which would enable network services to be available on a reliable basis in remote and rural areas. If adequate power is not reliably available from an electricity grid, investments in additional, and, where feasible, renewable energy sources, such as solar energy, should be eligible for universal service and access funding. The advent of broadband provision as a recent focus area for universal service requires attention to backbone as well as access networks and the availability of affordable terminal devices. There needs to be coordination among the three spheres of government since there are a number of broadband roll-out projects taking place at provincial and municipal levels. The transition from analogue to digital broadcasting services requires the subsidisation of set-top boxes to allow citizens uninterrupted access to broadcasting services. In terms of broadcasting, its coverage, availability, accessibility, language and local content also need to be taken into consideration. The role of state-owned entities such as Broadband Infraco and Sentech in the universal provision of broadband services also needs to be explored and exploited. 72 This gazette is also available free online at www.gpwonline.co.za